Math Every Day

It happens to me that learning science, particularly analytics and different types of higher arithmetic, is a lot of like learning an unknown dialect. Math begins like an unknown dialect, having its own images, definitions, applications, and structures. It is hard to use from the start and requires redundancy, similar to another dialect. One needs to remember images, their capacities and numerous guidelines, and afterward one needs to rehearse by working numerous issues. Students can't be alright with new dialects (science) until they can utilize it more than once, reliably, and effectively. Math, or another dialect, is as of now existent and the student needs to adjust to it and work in it; the new material won't adjust to the student. One learns a language by tuning in to other people and by perusing, utilizing a word reference, learning the language rules, and what breaks any or those guidelines. Math is comparable. After much practice, understudies can speak with others in their new dialect and extend their capacities with more practice and use, similarly as in arithmetic. Those with a decent establishment by means of formal guidance are plainly greater at than those that get it to a great extent, intermittently.â The first can be comprehended and the second gotten lost. Less very much prepared students are constrained in the range and layering of importance their correspondence can include and don't have the devices for significantly more significant levels of language (arithmetic) learning. A solid establishment readies the new dialect speaker or the new math understudy for the following stage in their subject’s discipline and for later advancement, exploration, and development in that discipline. Arithmetic and language are the equivalent †They have equations and examples; they are correspondence and they are excellent (for example fractal examples and verse). Maybe this is the explanation that the movies â€Å"Close experiences of the third kind† utilized music (scientific) and â€Å"Contact† utilized science as the types of correspondence that demonstrated fruitful among outsiders and earth individuals.

Maintenance Strategy Math Problem Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Support Strategy - Math Problem Example As the paper plots, mð °ny Ð ¾f the bð °tñ h reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ• Ð °re Ã'•emibð °tñ h (Ð °lñ•ð ¾ Ã' Ã° °lled fedbð °tñ h) reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ• in whiñ h Ð °n initið °l Ð °mð ¾unt Ð ¾f mð °terið °l iñ• Ã'€lð °Ã± ed in the reð °Ã± tð ¾r, the fluid iñ• heð °ted tð ¾ the deñ•ired temñ€erð °ture, Ð °nd then Ð °dditið ¾nð °l feed Ð ¾f freñ•h reð °Ã± tð °nt iñ• grð °duð °lly Ð °dded tð ¾ the veñ•ñ•el. Оñ€timð °l Ã' Ã° ¾ntrð ¾l theð ¾ry hð °Ã±â€¢ has been generally uñ•ed tð ¾ infer Ð ¾Ã±â‚¬erð °tið ¾n Ã'€ð ¾liñ ieñ• fð ¾r bð °tñ h reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ• (Filiñ€ñ€i-Bð ¾Ã±â€¢Ã±â€¢y et Ð °l., 1989). Mð °ny Ã'€ð °Ã±â‚¬erñ• hð °ve been Ã'€ubliñ•hed where diverse Ð ¾Ã±â‚¬timð °l Ã' Ã° ¾ntrð ¾l deñ•ignñ• Ð °re exñ€lð ¾red, rð °nging frð ¾m reñ urrent neurð °l netwð ¾rk mð ¾delñ• (Xið ¾ng Ð °nd Zhð °ng, 2005) tð ¾ Ð ¾n-line dynð °miñ  Ð ¾Ã± €timizð °tið ¾n (Ð rñ€ð ¾rnwiñ hð °nð ¾Ã±â‚¬ et Ð °l., 2005). The intereñ•ted reð °der iñ• alluded tð ¾ the reñ ent Ã'•urvey by Ð… metñ• et Ð °l., 2004 I.Y. Ð… metñ•, J.E. Ð ¡lð °eñ•, E.J. Nð ¾vember, G.ð . Bð °Ã±â€¢tin Ð °nd J.F. Vð °n Imñ€e, Оñ€timð °l Ð °dð °Ã±â‚¬tive Ã' Ã° ¾ntrð ¾l Ð ¾f (bið ¾)ñ hemiñ Ã° °l reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ•: Ã'€ð °Ã±â€¢t, Ã'€reñ•ent Ð °nd future, Jð ¾urnð °l Ð ¾f Ð rð ¾Ã± eñ•ñ• Ð ¡Ã° ¾ntrð ¾l 14 (2004), Ã'€ñ€. 795â€805. The fð ¾llð ¾wing nð ¾tð °tið ¾n will be Ã' Ã° ¾nñ•idered in the following Ã'•eñ tið ¾nñ•: †¢ iñ• the veñ tð ¾r Ð ¾f Ã' Ã° ¾nñ entrð °tið ¾nñ• Ð ¾f the invð ¾lved Ã' hemiñ Ã° °l Ã'•ñ€eñ ieñ•. †¢iñ• the veñ tð ¾r Ð ¾f freñ•h feed Ã' Ã° ¾nñ entrð °tið ¾nñ•.†¢iñ• the reð °Ã± tð ¾r temñ€erð °ture.â †¢iñ• the freñ•h feed temñ€erð °ture.â â₠¬ ¢iñ• the reð °Ã± tð ¾r vð ¾lume.â †¢iñ• the freñ•h feed flð ¾wrð °te.â †¢iñ• the veñ tð ¾r Ð ¾f reð °Ã± tið ¾n kinetiñ Ã±â€¢.â †¢iñ• the Ã'•tð ¾iñ hið ¾metriñ  mð °trix.â †¢iñ• Ð ° veñ tð ¾r relð °ted tð ¾ Ã' Ã° ¾nñ•tð °nt reð °Ã± tið ¾n enthÐ °lÃ'€ieÃ'•. †¢ÃŽ ³(Ã' ,T,t) iñ• the heð °t trð °nñ•fer Ã'€ð °rð °meter.â †¢u iñ• the jð °Ã± ket temñ€erð °ture, whiñ h iñ• tð °ken Ð °Ã±â€¢ the Ã' Ã° ¾ntrð ¾l inÃ'€ut. In the Ã'•equel, the â€Å"bð °tñ h reð °Ã± tð ¾r† terminð ¾lð ¾gy will allude tð ¾ bð ¾th Ã'•triñ t bð °tñ h Ð °nd Ã'•emibð °tñ h reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ•. Bð °tñ h reð °Ã± tð ¾rñ• in whiñ h m reð °Ã± tið ¾nñ• tð °ke Ã'€lð °Ã± e invð ¾lving n (n>m) Ã' hemiñ Ã° °l Ã'•ñ€eñ ieñ•, Ð °re Ã' Ã° ¾nñ•idered.

The First Year (In Numbers)

The First Year (In Numbers) Throughout my 5-ish months as a blogger for the Institvte, Ive covered a lot of ground, if we go by number of categories. Our blogs have a ton of primary categories under which a poster may classify an entry. With this one notwithstanding, Ive covered 9 categories over 11 posts but somehow, Ive left out the classes Ive taken as a freshman. Let me fix that. Ill start with semester one, which is when the proverbial fire hose of learning was opened at full force. Ill try to sum the classes up in 100 words or less: 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science: You may remember 5.111 as the class where I threw ping pong balls for science. However, it also stands apart from my other classes as the only one that offered free food.The 5.111 staff would periodically invite students to forums, where they could talk over pizza and snacks. They sought our impressions of the class and suggestions on how to make it better and they do listen. For instance, some students mentioned there werent enough concept questions asked, which are used both for attendance and to get students thinking at their seats. They responded by adding a few more. 8.01T Physics 1 (Newtonian Physics): Your mileage may vary on MITs TEAL system, which splits a class of roughly 80-100 students into manageable tables of 9. For me, it was a mixed bag.While I had a lot of fun with the people at my table (yeah table 12!), it was sometimes hard to learn from the smarter people in the group, who ignored TEALs efforts at encouraging collaboration by plowing through the work. This wasnt so bad for the kinetics unit, but by the time we got to gyroscopeswell, it wasnt pretty. 9.48J/24.08J Philosophical Issues in Brain Science: If youve ever believed that neuroscientific findings and philosophical principles are inextricably bound, youll be enthralled by how entangled the two disciplines really are.Its lectures injected theory and experimental reports into discussions of autism, Molyneuxs problem, the nativism/empiricism debate, and the limits of consciousness. Though several knowledgeable guest lecturers from Brown, Harvard, NYU, and MIT weighed in, my TA and several essay assignments encouraged me to support or reject each view through critical analysis. 9.48Js interdisciplinary approach to humanities set the bar high for other HASS classes here. Hopefully the others are just as good! 18.02 Multivariable Calculus: I cant mention 18.02 without describing Professor Poonen, an engaging, endearingly quirky lecturer and eclectic artist. Hes done some memorable things throughout 18.02, like drawing ears on triangles to show symmetry, and sketching a horse to show what saddle points look like.Sadly, 18.02 became just another GIR. In my opinion, the few practical, non-esoteric applications of multi became increasingly irrelevant for, say, a life scientist. Ive been told 18.03, Differential Equations, is better about that, but Im still tempted to put that class off. SP.708 Introduction to Screenwriting: This six-unit course met with other members of my advising group, a feature of RBA-based dorms like Next House. In our class of 8 freshmen, an upperclassman student adviser, and a faculty adviser, we constantly drafted up ideas for short films in an informal setting. We also got plenty of cookies and food here, but technically, this was a seminar (so it was the only seminar to offer food).It was good to try something new, but it was hard to keep up with those assignments on top of everything else. Those extra 6 units were quite a bit to add. Whew. If you got this far, take a breather. Thats what I did after the first semester, though Ill admit that may have been due to the weather. I also spent it sleeping, going out on weekends, seeking UROPs and internships, and did I mention sleeping? Anyway, on to semester two, where the hose is still hosing. Same deal: 100 words or less! Not including captions. (This is getting to be pretty challenging.) 5.12 Organic Chemistry I: Part of a premedical trifecta of classes Im taking this semester, orgo is actually more interesting than I thought itd be. Whats more, its not just straight memorization, but about applying central concepts.The methods arent hard to pick up, and putting them together helps you analyze really intimidating molecules. For example, I have no idea what this is off the top of my head: You get brownie points if you can name this. The delicious kind of brownie points. II ran out of carbons when I made this, so the magenta is also a carbon.But I dont need that name to tell you where it might react. Why? Molecules with pi bonds or heteroatoms with lone pairs are common sites for reactions. Thats orgo at work! 7.013 Introductory Biology: My TA for this class is headed to law school. But its cool, since he was also a TA for this class last semester.Also, I essentially took this class last year when I took AP Bio in my senior year of high school. While that isnt necessarily new for me, my two lecturers Professors Jacks and Sive are. Professor Sive also has an incredible British accent, which should make these lectures worthwhile. If you want to hear it, or learn more about Professor Sives birthday ducks, dont despair itll be going up on MITs OpenCourseWare. 8.02T Physics 2 (Electricity and Magnetism): My lecturer, Professor Soljacic, helped invent wireless electricity. I think that makes him an expert on the topic.True to MIT form, he made my class wrap our heads around it on the first day. Surprisingly, the concept and its explanation were both really accessible. Also, TEAL seems to be working out a little better, probably because people have adapted to the idea of working in groups. But well see. 9.00 Introduction to Psychology: As I started writing this, I realized Hamsika did everything Im doing this semester and more.Now that Im totally unoriginal, let me spice it up: this class is going on OpenCourseWare. Proof.Good thing too, because the lecturer, Professor Gabrielli, is both entertaining and insightful. He frequently connects psychology experiments to society and human behavior, often with a profound statement at the end. Why, for example, do people praised for intelligence do worse than those praised for effort when they take on hard tasks? Natural intelligence, he wagered, is viewed as finite; effort, however, is infinite. Professor Gabriellis conjecture sums up the year nicely, as of right now. I came in, as countless other MIT undergrads probably have, relatively sure of how smart I was. Now I know that theres much that I dont know, and once the notions of natural intelligence drop off, I can seriously get to work on pursuing more knowledge. Guess that means Ill see all of you on the other side of this semester.

The First Year (In Numbers)

The First Year (In Numbers) Throughout my 5-ish months as a blogger for the Institvte, Ive covered a lot of ground, if we go by number of categories. Our blogs have a ton of primary categories under which a poster may classify an entry. With this one notwithstanding, Ive covered 9 categories over 11 posts but somehow, Ive left out the classes Ive taken as a freshman. Let me fix that. Ill start with semester one, which is when the proverbial fire hose of learning was opened at full force. Ill try to sum the classes up in 100 words or less: 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science: You may remember 5.111 as the class where I threw ping pong balls for science. However, it also stands apart from my other classes as the only one that offered free food.The 5.111 staff would periodically invite students to forums, where they could talk over pizza and snacks. They sought our impressions of the class and suggestions on how to make it better and they do listen. For instance, some students mentioned there werent enough concept questions asked, which are used both for attendance and to get students thinking at their seats. They responded by adding a few more. 8.01T Physics 1 (Newtonian Physics): Your mileage may vary on MITs TEAL system, which splits a class of roughly 80-100 students into manageable tables of 9. For me, it was a mixed bag.While I had a lot of fun with the people at my table (yeah table 12!), it was sometimes hard to learn from the smarter people in the group, who ignored TEALs efforts at encouraging collaboration by plowing through the work. This wasnt so bad for the kinetics unit, but by the time we got to gyroscopeswell, it wasnt pretty. 9.48J/24.08J Philosophical Issues in Brain Science: If youve ever believed that neuroscientific findings and philosophical principles are inextricably bound, youll be enthralled by how entangled the two disciplines really are.Its lectures injected theory and experimental reports into discussions of autism, Molyneuxs problem, the nativism/empiricism debate, and the limits of consciousness. Though several knowledgeable guest lecturers from Brown, Harvard, NYU, and MIT weighed in, my TA and several essay assignments encouraged me to support or reject each view through critical analysis. 9.48Js interdisciplinary approach to humanities set the bar high for other HASS classes here. Hopefully the others are just as good! 18.02 Multivariable Calculus: I cant mention 18.02 without describing Professor Poonen, an engaging, endearingly quirky lecturer and eclectic artist. Hes done some memorable things throughout 18.02, like drawing ears on triangles to show symmetry, and sketching a horse to show what saddle points look like.Sadly, 18.02 became just another GIR. In my opinion, the few practical, non-esoteric applications of multi became increasingly irrelevant for, say, a life scientist. Ive been told 18.03, Differential Equations, is better about that, but Im still tempted to put that class off. SP.708 Introduction to Screenwriting: This six-unit course met with other members of my advising group, a feature of RBA-based dorms like Next House. In our class of 8 freshmen, an upperclassman student adviser, and a faculty adviser, we constantly drafted up ideas for short films in an informal setting. We also got plenty of cookies and food here, but technically, this was a seminar (so it was the only seminar to offer food).It was good to try something new, but it was hard to keep up with those assignments on top of everything else. Those extra 6 units were quite a bit to add. Whew. If you got this far, take a breather. Thats what I did after the first semester, though Ill admit that may have been due to the weather. I also spent it sleeping, going out on weekends, seeking UROPs and internships, and did I mention sleeping? Anyway, on to semester two, where the hose is still hosing. Same deal: 100 words or less! Not including captions. (This is getting to be pretty challenging.) 5.12 Organic Chemistry I: Part of a premedical trifecta of classes Im taking this semester, orgo is actually more interesting than I thought itd be. Whats more, its not just straight memorization, but about applying central concepts.The methods arent hard to pick up, and putting them together helps you analyze really intimidating molecules. For example, I have no idea what this is off the top of my head: You get brownie points if you can name this. The delicious kind of brownie points. II ran out of carbons when I made this, so the magenta is also a carbon.But I dont need that name to tell you where it might react. Why? Molecules with pi bonds or heteroatoms with lone pairs are common sites for reactions. Thats orgo at work! 7.013 Introductory Biology: My TA for this class is headed to law school. But its cool, since he was also a TA for this class last semester.Also, I essentially took this class last year when I took AP Bio in my senior year of high school. While that isnt necessarily new for me, my two lecturers Professors Jacks and Sive are. Professor Sive also has an incredible British accent, which should make these lectures worthwhile. If you want to hear it, or learn more about Professor Sives birthday ducks, dont despair itll be going up on MITs OpenCourseWare. 8.02T Physics 2 (Electricity and Magnetism): My lecturer, Professor Soljacic, helped invent wireless electricity. I think that makes him an expert on the topic.True to MIT form, he made my class wrap our heads around it on the first day. Surprisingly, the concept and its explanation were both really accessible. Also, TEAL seems to be working out a little better, probably because people have adapted to the idea of working in groups. But well see. 9.00 Introduction to Psychology: As I started writing this, I realized Hamsika did everything Im doing this semester and more.Now that Im totally unoriginal, let me spice it up: this class is going on OpenCourseWare. Proof.Good thing too, because the lecturer, Professor Gabrielli, is both entertaining and insightful. He frequently connects psychology experiments to society and human behavior, often with a profound statement at the end. Why, for example, do people praised for intelligence do worse than those praised for effort when they take on hard tasks? Natural intelligence, he wagered, is viewed as finite; effort, however, is infinite. Professor Gabriellis conjecture sums up the year nicely, as of right now. I came in, as countless other MIT undergrads probably have, relatively sure of how smart I was. Now I know that theres much that I dont know, and once the notions of natural intelligence drop off, I can seriously get to work on pursuing more knowledge. Guess that means Ill see all of you on the other side of this semester.

Dementia and Parkinson´s Disease Essay - 731 Words

Parkinson’s disease, a type of dementia also known as idiopathic or primary parkinsonism, paralysis agitans, or hypokinetic rigid syndrome/HRS, is on the rise in the U.S. Each year there are over 60,000 new cases in the U.S. alone. With the average person diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease over the age of 65 and America’s rapidly growing elderly population, awareness and concern are becoming significant points of interest for many healthcare professionals. Parkinson’s disease is caused by the destruction of dopamine-producing nerve cells in the midbrain (Substantia nigra). These nerve cells are used to coordinate smooth and regular body movement. In the absence of these cells, people often experience tremors (involuntary shaking or†¦show more content†¦Ultimately Pathak was able to figure out how to make the hardware for cancellation small enough to help those affected by tremors. As a result, Pathak’s research in stabilization has taken the technology in a new direction. Instead of trying to force the hand to stop moving (which often causes pain and irritation), Liftware stabilizes the object that the person is trying to hold. This is the first product of its kind that has the ability to constantly steady itself while the user is shaking. Located in the Liftware utensil is a microchip and sensor that can monitor the direction and force of the tremors. The motion sensor feeds data to the onboard control, separating the unintended motion (the tremor) from the intended motion (eating). The device is then able to adjust its movements using an actuator to counteract the users uncontrolled movement. Running on a rechargeable battery similar to the modern electronic toothbrushes, this electronic utensil can last on a single charge for several days. In a study conducted at the University of Michigan, researchers tested Liftware on a variety of patients. Before any patient was tested, a neurologist characterized the tremors of each of the patients. Then each patient was instructed to do simple tasks (eating, gripping items, etc.) with the Liftware utensil, which had interchangeable parts for both a fork and spoon. The results showed a 75% reduction in tremors in the patients hands on average. The price for a LiftwareShow MoreRelatedChildren With Dementia And Parkinson s Disease1488 Words   |  6 Pages 1. Introduction Dementia is a collection of symptoms caused by disorders affecting the brain which impact on a person’s functioning, ranging from thinking to behaviour and the ability to perform ordinary tasks and there are different type of dementia with the most common types being Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia and Parkinson’s disease (Keast, 2015). 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The disease is characterized by rigidity, tremor at rest, bradykinesis, and decreased postural reflexes (Bollinger, Cowan, LaFontaine, Ronai, 2012). Parkinson disease was largely documented and brought to the forefront by James Parkinson, who published an article discussing the condition in 1817 (Lees, 2007). While great strides in understanding and treatment have been made, Parkinson diseaseRead MoreNot Only Is It Detrimental To The Social Development Of1604 Words   |  7 Pagesdegeneration. Individuals with dementia who maintain active lifestyles will ultimately be happier, while also increasing their physical strength (Shaikh). Another piece of evidence that found to support the ideology that recognizing these symptoms and intervening early is important states that, â€Å"Many of these lifestyle changes have been shown to lower the risk of other diseases, like heart diseas e and diabetes, which have been linked to Alzheimer s† (Alzheimer s Association Organization). Even

Schizophrenia - A Genetic and Environmental Review - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2739 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Psychology Essay Level High school Tags: Schizophrenia Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Schizophrenia is defined as a severe brain disorder characterized by disturbances of thoughts, perceptions, volition, and cognition, which affects about 1% of the world population today (Ozawa et al., 2006, p. 546). The disorder can be incapacitating to those who live with it and prevent normal societal function. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Schizophrenia A Genetic and Environmental Review" essay for you Create order Despite its frequency in the population, scientists and medical professionals still struggle to find a conclusive explanation for why some develop schizophrenia. This may be in part due to its ties to both environmental and genetic factors. Throughout the literature there are extensive hypotheses on what the contributing factors to development of the disorder are, but a consensus remains that no one factor defines susceptibility. Environmentally, Adult onset of schizophrenia seems to be linked to neonatal care. Maternal viral infection (Ozawa et al., 2006) as well as maternal vitamin D deficiency from improper diet and sunlight intake (Pluta, 2010) leads to small but significant increases in offspring disorder development. Genetic pre-disposition is also a well-known factor to be considered. Currently well researched, disruption of dopaminergic pathways in schizophrenic patients are becoming more prevalent as it seems to play a crucial role in symptomology of the disorder. More speci fically, abnormal dopamine function appears to give rise to much of the positive symptoms (psychosis) (Abi-Dargham et al., 2000). In addition to the factors that increase likelihood of development, treatment is heavily discussed in the literature. Medication is a crucial baseline component to treatment as it can keep patients functional, so that other psychosocial therapies can occur. Unfortunately, the symptomology that demands medication also prevents approximately 50% of patients from maintaining a regimen. Increased numbers of environmental treatments are being researched to rectify this (Velligan et al., 2008). Schizophrenia is generally a hard disease to measure because its symptoms vary widely across the population. The 2 domains that most of the symptoms fit within are positive are negative. Positive symptoms are analyzed using the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. This scale accurately places how severe a patients symptoms (psychosis, delusions, etc.) are and detects changes over time. The Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) rates how severely a patient presents in the 5 categories on th e scale. (Lindenmayer, Harvey, Khan, Kirkpatrick, (2007). Unfortunate limitations to these measurement scales are that patients frequently go on and off medications making it hard to monitor improvement in symptoms over time. Also, patients can cross lines from one subtype to another as well as more minor subtypes, making categorization difficult. Genetic Studies The effect of dopamine on Schizophrenia has recently begun to be heavily investigated in the scientific community. Dopamine receptors, specifically D2 appear to be a probable contributing factor to the classic symptoms of Schizophrenia. The receptor availability of dopamine was measured in patients at the standard level as well as after drug administration to reduce available dopamine in 36 subjects. 18 of these subjects were Schizophrenic patients and the other 18 were matched controls. The dopamine receptor availability in each subject was measured with single-photon computerized emission tomography (SPECT) and the drug administered to reduce dopamine concentration was ? ±-methyl-para-tyrosine (? ±-MPT). Upon the first initial analysis, no significant difference in standard dopamine receptor availability was noted between the Schizophrenic and control subjects. However, after a decrease in available dopamine, significant results arose (Abi-Dargham et al., 2000). Upon depletion of dopamine with ? ±-MPT, there was a significant increase in receptor availability in both Schizophrenic patient s and control subjects. This is an intuitive explanation as a decrease in dopamine would trick the brain into believing it needs more receptors to reach its normal level of dopamine binding. However, the increase in dopamine receptor availability was significantly higher in patients with Schizophrenia (19% ? ± 11%) compared to the control subjects (9% ? ± 7%) after the drug treatment. This data is illustrated below (Figure 1). Through this data it can be deduced that if much of the dopamine was reduced by ? ±-MPT, then there would be a difference of 8% ? ± 6%, compared to 15% ? ± 7% of D2 receptors filled in the control vs. Schizophrenic patients, respectively. This data provides significant evidence that contributes to the literature on dopamine involvement with Schizophrenic symptomology. Dopamine appears to be highly involved with the D2 receptor in patients with Schizophrenia, but not as much in the normal population (Abi-Dargham et al., 2000). In addition to dopaminergic activity, other underlying molecular mechanisms may also play a role in schizophrenia development. Microarray technology was utilized to examine gene expression patterns in 24 schizophrenic or control patients. This technology can pinpoint differential gene expression patterns, and the underlying molecular mechanisms can then be examined. Experimental analysis was conducted on subjects diagnosed with chronic schizophrenia and controls, all of whom died from natural causes. After death the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the subjects was dissected into ~0.5cm tissue cubes. In the 89 genes that showed differential expression patterns in schizophrenic vs. control subjects, a categorical pattern emerged. The majority of these genes were involved in mechanism of signal transduction, neurotransmission, neuronal development, synaptic plasticity, and most prominently myelination (Hakak et al., 2001). Of these 5 categories, all but myelination appear to have an i ncrease in gene expression compared to the control. Although not conclusively followed up with, this data indicates that multiple, if not all these genes may play a role in the symptomology of schizophrenia. The downregulation of the myelination genes plays a role in this theory, as the 5 genes in this category all aid in formation of oligodendrocytes. Commonly known, oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the central nervous system. The primary function of myelin is to aid in cell signaling and protect neurons. With deficient production, this can cause significant changes in brain circuitry. In addition, the authors noted that in humans, myelin production by oligodendrocytes within the region examined (prefrontal cortex) begins to occur from late adolescence to early adulthood. This coincides with the period that both men and women begin to report symptoms of schizophrenia development. The conclusion can be drawn that this deficiency may go unnoticed for much of the early stages of lif e, but as myelin production begins this could be a tipping point for disease onset (Hakak et al., 2001). In addition to disruptions in neurological pathways, specific gene loci have begun to be implicated in risk for schizophrenia development. Over 100 of these loci have now been located, however this research remains generally fragmented (Harrison, 2015). This has remained the case because no one aberrant gene can be directly correlated to schizophrenia development. It has been maintained in the literature that multiple aspects of genetic predisposition linked to specific environmental triggers must be connected to lead to a schizophrenia diagnosis. Previous human and animal studies have linked the DISC1 gene to mental illness and schizophrenic phenotype. This gene is involved in numerous activities, making it hard to decipher which aspect of its disfunction may lead to this symptomology. A shortened DISC1 transgene from a human source was inserted under the ? ±CaMKII promoter in C57BL/6 mice. Expression of this gene leads to dominant negative phenotype. Two lines of transgene mice w ere created and compared to one wildtype line. The ? ±CaMKII promoter was chosen specifically because of its role in gene expression in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. From 3-8 months of age several behavioral analyses exams and in vivo MRI scans were conducted to survey a wide variety of characteristics in the tg C57BL/6 mice (Hikida et al., 2007). A staple phenotype in a large percentage of schizophrenic patients is abnormal sizing of the lateral ventricles. In vivo MRI scanning of tg line 10 at 6 weeks and 3 months showed significantly larger left lateral ventricles compared to wildtype. In the same line, the ratio between left and right ventricles as well as lateral ventricles to whole brain volume was shown to be larger in tg compared to wildtype, however, this only became significant at 3 months of age. (Figure 2). Behavioral analyses also showed that tg mice had lower pre-pulse inhibition (a measure of cerebral cortex sensorimotor gating) and increased hyperactivity compared to wildtype. These are common characteristics in schizophrenic patients, however other common characteristics such as anxiety, impaired motor coordination, and working memory were not affected (Hikida et al., 2007). Inserting a shortened DISC1 transgene into C57BL/6 mice resulted in tg mice lines that demonstrated significant pathogenic and behavioral traits seen in patients of schizophrenia. This does well to contribute to the present literature that the DISC1 is implicated in some aspects of schizophrenic symptomology and development. Because this transgene came from a human source this gives a strong external validity for generalization to the human population, but as always there may be limitations such as the way this pathology and behavior may shift after years of medical treatment or psychological therapy (Hikida et al., 2007). Environmental Studies Schizophrenia is strongly theorized to be linked to both genetic and environmental causes. A well-known environmental factor that could lead to fetal development of schizophrenia is maternal contraction of viral infection. Evidence from previous studies provided evidence to suggest that maternal viral infection during developmental stages in pregnancy lead to higher rates of fetal schizophrenic development. This viral infection appears to be non-specific as research has been done on influenza, polio, rubella, and measles may all have the same effect. This information led researchers to believe that maternal immune response, particularly inflammatory cytokines, may affecting fetal neurological development rather than the viral infection itself. To simulate this environmental factor in schizophrenic development, double-stranded RNA polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (poly I:C) was utilized. This method was used to replicate a viral infection because it causes a non-disease specific immune reaction. BALB/c mice were bred in the lab and from 2-weeks to 3-weeks post copulation pregnant females were injected with the RNA daily (Ozawa et al., 2006). To measure if the offspring of the poly I:C injected mothers demonstrated characteristics comparable to Schizophrenia, 3 criteria were measured. These were maturational delay, damage to dopaminergic systems, and cognitive impairment. Along with cognitive impairment, the effects of two common anti-psychotic drugs on this were measured. These drugs were clozapine and haloperidol. After in jection the pregnant mothers were observed to gain less weight than expected as well as produce a lower number of pups. The offspring of these mice were measured to have significantly damaged dopaminergic systems as well as cognitive impairment only after maturing into adults. Clozapine and haloperidol also helped to curb the symptoms of the cognitive impairment (Ozawa et al., 2006). This is a very useful animal model for understanding the association between gestational viral infection and offspring schizophrenia risk, however limitations apply to a comparison to a human model. The most significant limitation being that it is still not conclusively known at what stages of pregnancy an infection has the most risk on the fetus. This may skew data that could be obtained in a human study because women may be less inclined to report or remember a viral infection in early stages of pregnancy as they may not realize the effect it has on a fetus that is not showing yet. Interestingly, while the immune system is more susceptible to contracting viruses in colder months like winter and spring, this is also the time of year that vitamin D deficiencies are also most common. This time of year, also coincides with significantly more babies born that will develop Schizophrenia in adulthood. The most direct way to gain vitamin D is through the skin being exposed to sunlight. Thi s obviously becomes less feasible in the winter. Through the processing of vitamin D in the human body, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25[OH]D3) is produced. Infant blood samples from the Newborn Screening Biobank were analyzed for concentrations of (25[OH]D3). 424 Danish, schizophrenic and control matched pairs were used (Pluta, 2010). The data indicated a significant variation in the amount of 25[OH]D3 present in newborn blood throughout different months of the year. There was also a significant association between developing Schizophrenia in adulthood and the amount of 25[OH]D3 present in the blood at time of birth. In comparison to the fourth quintile of infants, infants with the highest 20% (first quintile) of 25[OH]D3 at time of birth had a 1.71% relative risk of developing schizophrenia in adulthood, while those in the lowest 20% (fifth quintile) of 25[OH]D3 at time of birth had a relative risk of 2.1% in comparison to the fourth quintile. The relative risks of the development of schizophrenia in controls is shown below (Figure 3). The most interesting component of the research is that while prenatal vitamin D plays a significant role in the future development of schizophrenia, the trend is not linear. Compared to the fourth quintile both the first and fifth quintiles had a higher risk of disease development. It did appear, however, that vitamin D deficiency plays a more prominent role (Pluta, 2010). Through literature analysis it becomes apparent that both genetic and environmental factors play a significant role in the development of schizophrenia. In the realm of treatment for this disease, a multitude of drug treatments are available, some of which are argued to treat better than others (Leucht, 2009). It is also important to consider the effect of environment on drug treatment and patient care for schizophrenia in general. While schizophrenia is a disease that somewhat demands drug treatment to keep patients norma lly functional, the adherence to medication is a significant problem in the population. The symptomology that demands drug adherence also promotes patient disassociation from treatment. Three different environmental treatment approaches were taken on subjects with diagnosed schizophrenics. These treatments were full-CAT treatment, Pharm-CAT, and TAU (treatment as usual). Cognitive adaptation training (CAT) is a personalized treatment designed to promote patients maintaining a medication schedule through a specific environmental setup and organization in the home. Pharm-CAT is essentially the same, however the organization only pertains to specifically medication-related lifestyle components (Velligan et al., 2008). The initial regimens lasted for a period of 9 months and medication adherence was measured through counting of untaken pills during periodic home visits. After this time-period the CAT environments were not removed, but home visits were for another 6 months. Adherence to medication treatments was shown to be significantly higher in both Full-CAT and Pharm-CAT patients compared to usual treatment patients during all stages of the experiment. However, in the area of functional outcomes, Full-CAT patients only performed better than Pharm-CAT in the initial 9 months of the study, and only Full-CAT patients outperformed traditional patients once home-visits were removed (Velligan et al., 2008). This study provides significant data to support how helpful individualized environments can be to medication adherence and normal functioning in patients with Schizophrenia. In all cases patients with any form of CAT treatment outperformed those undergoing their usual treatment. However, this treatment did get less effective when visitors stopped checking in on the patients. This is an important distinction, as a limitation to this treatment is that it does not appear to significantly effective in promoting self-sufficiency in schizophrenic patients (Velligan et al., 2008). References Abi-Dargham, A., Rodenhiser, J., Printz, D., Zea-Ponce, Y., Gil, R., Kegeles, L., . . . Laruelle, M. (2000). Increased Baseline Occupancy of D2 Receptors by Dopamine in Schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(14), 8104-8109. Hakak, Y., Walker, J., Li, C., Wong, W., Davis, K., Buxbaum, J., . . . Fienberg, A. (2001). Genome-wide expression analysis reveals dysregulation of myelination-related genes in chronic schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America., 98(8), 4746-4751. Harrison, P. (2015). Recent genetic findings in schizophrenia and their therapeutic relevance. Journal Of Psychopharmacology, 29(2), 85-96. Hikida, T., Jaaro-Peled, H., Seshadri, S., Oishi, K., Hookway, C., Kong, D., . . . Sawa. (2007). Dominant-negative DISC1 transgenic mice display schizophrenia-associated phenotypes detected by measures translatable to humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America., 104(36), 14501-14506. Leucht, S., Komossa, K., Rummel-Kluge, C., Corves, C., Hunger, H., Schmid, F., . . . Davis, J. (2009). A Meta-Analysis of Head-to-Head Comparisons of Second-Generation Antipsychotics in the Treatment of Schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry., 166(2), 152-163. Lindenmayer, Harvey, Khan, Kirkpatrick. (2007). Schizophrenia: Measurements of Psychopathology. Psychiatric Clinics of North America,30(3), 339-363. Ozawa, Hashimoto, Kishimoto, Shimizu, Ishikura, Iyo. (2006). Immune Activation During Pregnancy in Mice Leads to Dopaminergic Hyperfunction and Cognitive Impairment in the Offspring: A Neurodevelopmental Animal Model of Schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 59(6), 546-554. Pluta, R. (2010). Neonatal Vitamin D Status and Risk of Schizophrenia: A Population-Based Case-Control Study. JAMA, 304(18), 1996. Tseng, K., Lewis, B., Lipska, B., ODonnell, P. (2007). Post-Pubertal Disruption of Medial Prefrontal Cortical Dopamineâ€Å"Glutamate Interactions in a Developmental Animal Model of Schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry.,62(7), 730-738. Velligan, D., Diamond, P., Mintz, J., Maples, N., Li, X., Zeber, J., . . . Miller, A. (2008). The Use of Individually Tailored Environmental Supports to Improve Medication Adherence and Outcomes in Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(3), 483-493.

Slavery During The Colonial Period Essay - 1442 Words

Cheng Qian CIN: 303520717 History 202A Course Number: 17606 2/14/16 Freed Slaves During the colonial period, a lot of black slaves were brought into the land of America; the population of black slaves in the south plantation once reached the amount of 500,000 and they were oppressed by their masters, which are the white people with privilege. The black slaves did not have any freedoms, and even their lives belong to their masters, they could be tortured, killed, or transferred to other people as their masters wished. But nearly the same time of the Independence of the United States, the abolition movement began; most people believed that the behavior of owning and enslaving was against the spirit of building the nation. The abolitionists advocated to free the black slaves, but some of them believed that black people were inborn different with the whites naturally, and they thought that the freed blacks would not accept the American system and laws, and feared the freed blacks would disturb their social order and their society, so they could not leave the freed sl aves in the country but should send them overseas and have them live in their own land; thus, the first freed slaves were transported into the land of Africa, then the first freed black slaves’ home was settled in Liberia. Many historians believe that Liberia is an absolute colony, and it is not formed by the white Europeans but the freed black slaves from America. 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